Category: Life

Content

1. Introduction

2. Aspect and Tense of the English Verb in Theoretical Grammar

2.1 The history of the English verb

2.2 The characteristic of the Modern English verbs

2.3 Tense of the English Verbs

2.4 Peculiarities of Aspect in English

3. Conclusion

4. Works cited

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

In the English language, the verb
is one of the main and most important word classes. The term originates from Latin where it meant “word”. Verbs are used to express actions, processes, states or events. Verbs tell us what happens in a situation involving the noun (the subject of the sentence) and provide us the grammatical information. In the sentence verb is usually used as a predicator, and it also plays central role in the clause. None of the grammatically correct English sentences can exist without a verb. The verb indicates the necessity and the role of the other elements of the clause; it shows the connection between the discourse and the event in objective reality.

The aim of the present work is to show the peculiarities of modern English verbs, connected with their tense and aspect grammatical categories, and to detect their justification in the whole history of the English language. The main task of the work is to analyze the structure and usage of English verbs in different tenses and aspects. The methods
used in the present work are analysis, comparative method and similitude.

The verb possesses the ability to define a process proceeding in time. The difficulty of this part of speech is not only in the structure of its various grammatical categories, but also in its subclass divisions and falling into two sets of different forms: the finite and non-finite forms.  The verb holds the grammatical categories of tense, aspect, finitude, voice, person, mood, number and phase. These categories may be expressed either synthetically (within the word itself with the use of affixes and inflections) or analytically (within the sentence using prepositions).

In the present work the two main grammatical categories are examined. Tense is a grammatical category that locates an event or a process in time, to show when the situation occurs. It denotes the relation of the event to the moment of speech. Aspect
is a grammatical category that expresses how an action, event or state, denoted by a verb, relates to the flow of time[1]. This concept is based on distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects. The interrelation between tense and aspect is obvious. The tenses are classified according to the idea of duration or completeness of the action expressed by the verb.

The complex structure of the verb in grammar accompanies English during the long existence of this language. Its roots can be found in old history of the English language.

The information above was given to facilitate understanding of the use of English verbs in the Indicative Mood. This mood represents actions or events as real facts. The Indicative Mood contains the category of tense.

Each utterance demands an indication if the event is happening at the moment of speech, or it has happened earlier, or it is expected to happen later. Grammatical tense is the set of the verb forms that determines the definite point in time or a certain period in past, present or future. We receive the set of forms referent to the definite tense by adding the inflections to the basic form of the verbs or including auxiliary and modal verbs into the verb group. [5]

If you want to emphasize the time of an event, you should used a time adjunct – an adverb, a noun group or a prepositional phrase that indicates the time of the action. Adjunct usually takes place in the end of the sentence, but it can either be put in the beginning to accent the time. Every grammatical tense in English has its own adjuncts that help us to define the tense, e.g., adjunct tomorrow shows us that the Future Tense is used in the phrase.

There are different approaches in classification of the English grammatical tenses. Traditionally, 12 tenses are distinguished in English Grammar. But this classification does not include all the Passive tenses and the category of Future-in-the-Past. Russian grammarian Yury Golitzinsky distinguished 16 tenses of the Active voice and 10 tenses of the Passive voice (to sum up – 26 tenses). [6] According to the point of view of B.A. Ilyish the time is represented in English by the three tenses (past, present and future), each of which can appear in the common and in the continuous aspect. He also distinguishes future-in-the-past as a separate form. [7] A. A. Rivlina says that the English tense system consists of four verbal tense forms: the present, the past, the future, and the future-in-the-past.

As it was mentioned, in Old English the tenses were divided into two big groups – past and present. Later the Future forms appeared, though they are composed only with the help of auxiliaries and modal verbs and they do not possess special verb forms or inflections. Each group of tenses – Present, Past and Future – are used in four aspects.

Present Tenses

If we discuss the current deals, we usually use the verb in the form of the Present tense. The simplest tense of this group is Present Indefinite (Simple) – it is used to describe the present activities or to talk about routines or habits.

We use it in the following cases:

to express statements, facts or habitual actions in the present: My father works in Moscow.

to state the universal truths: The sun sets in the West.

to describe the current feelings, emotions or abilities: I hear approaching feet.

to express the Future simple after certain conjunctions (when, after, before, etc.): If he gets a good rest, he’ll be his usual self tomorrow.

in timetables: The plane arrives at 6-30.

to express the action with non-progressive verbs: I believe I understand her.

The Present Simple is formed in the following way:

The Subject + Infinitive without “to” + -s/-es inflection in 3rd person.

These are the adjuncts of the Present Simple: always, ever, every day, generally, never, occasionally, often, seldom, rarely, regularly, sometimes, usually.

The next tense of this group is Present Progressive (Continuous). The Present Continuous is mainly used to express the idea that something is happening at the moment of speaking.

It is used in the situations below:

an action is going on at the moment of speaking: I am reading my lectures now, don’t disturb me.

an action is going on at the present period of time: I’m slimming (not just now, but at present).

changing situations and processes: The story is getting more and more interesting.

expressing irritation: You are always cheating on exams!

near future: He is returning on Tuesday.

The Present Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to be + Participle I

These are the adjuncts of the Present Simple: now, at the moment, still, constantly, always.

Next tense is the Present Perfect Simple. It is used to express actions that happened at an indefinite time or that began in the past and continue in the present. This tense is also used when an activity has an effect on the present moment.

The following actions are used with the Present Perfect:

Actions which happened at an indefinite (unknown) time before now: I have already been to Paris.

Actions in the past which have an effect on the present moment: I have already eaten the dinner, so I’m not hungry.

Actions which began in the past and continue in the present: Mary has worked as a teacher for over 25 years.

The Present Perfect is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to have + Participle II

These are the adjuncts of the Present Perfect: ever, already, just, before, never, yet, so far.

The last form of this group is the
Present Perfect Progressive. The Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense expresses the actions that have started in the past and are still continuing. We use it:

when the action or progress has started in the past and continue in the present: He has been painting the house for 5 hours already.

when the action has recently stopped: Look at her eyes! I’m sure she has been crying. 

with the temporary actions and situations: I have been working as a waitress for the past week.

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to have + auxiliary verb to be in Past Participle + Participle I of the main verb

Past Tenses

When we speak about the past, we need the adjunctions of the peat tenses to point out the exact time that we mean. The simplest tense of this group is Past Indefinite (Simple) – it is used to describe the activities that happened in exact time of the past.

We use it to express the following:

Events in the past are now finished: I went to college 3 years ago.

Situation in the past: In happened in the 19th century.

A series of actions in the past: He entered a room, lit a cigarette and smiled at the guests.

The Past Simple is formed in the following way:

The Subject + The Past Simple form of the main verb / -ed inflection

These are the adjuncts of the Past Simple: yesterday, a year ago, last week, just now, the other day.

The next tense of this group is Past Progressive (Continuous). The Past Continuous is mainly used to express the idea that something was happening during some time in the past.

It is used to express:

Duration in the past: I was learning my French from 8 till 9 yesterday.

Interrupted actions in progress: The door suddenly opened when she was taking a shower.

Actions in progress at the same time in the past: I was watching TV and Barbara was reading a book.

Irritation: He was always disturbing me!

Polite question: I was thinking you might help me with this problem.

The Past Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to be in the Past Simple form + Participle I

Next tense is the Past Perfect Simple. It is used to emphasize that an action in the past finished before another action in the past started. This tense is also used in reported speech, third conditional sentences, or to show dissatisfaction with the past.

The following actions are used with the Past Perfect:

Completed action before another action in the past: I had just finished my homework when John came in.

Third conditional sentences: If I had known about it before I would have never made this mistake.

Reported speech: He told me he had read this book already.

Dissatisfaction with the past: I wish I had taken more food. I’m hungry now.

The Past Perfect is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to have in the Past Simple form + Participle II

These are the adjuncts of the Past Perfect: ever, already, just, before, never, yet, so far.

The last form of this group is the
Past Perfect Progressive. The Past Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense is used to talk about actions or situations that were in progress before some other actions or situations. There are also other uses.

Duration of a past action up to a certain point in the past: The boys had been quarreling for half an hour when we arrived home.

Showing cause of an action or situation: I had to go on a diet because I had been eating too much sugar.

Third conditional sentences: If it hadn’t been raining, we would have gone to the park.

Reported speech: She said she knew Charlie had been lying to her.

The Past Perfect Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb to have in the Past Simple form + auxiliary verb to be in Past Participle + Participle I of the main verb

Future Tenses

We cannot talk about the future with the same sureness as if we talk about the past or the present. The Future Tense in English expresses your plans or ideas about what will happen. The simplest tense of this group is Future Indefinite (Simple) – it is used to describe the present activities or to talk about routines or habits.

We use it in the following cases:

to express action that will take place in future: He will finish his work tomorrow.

to express spontaneous decisions: I will close the door.

to express repeated actions in the future: He will stay after the lessons every Monday for two weeks.

The Future Simple is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb will/shall + the Infinitive without “to”

These are the adjuncts of the Future Simple: tomorrow, in a day, next week.

The next tense of this group is Future Progressive (Continuous). The Future Continuous is mainly used to express the idea that something will be happening during exact time in the future.

It is used in the situations below:

an action will be continuing in the future: He will be studying tomorrow at eight.

an action predicted by the speaker: I must hurry, my mom will be worrying about me.

The Future Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb will/shall + auxiliary verb to be + Participle I

Next tense is the Future Perfect Simple. It is used to express actions that will happen by an exact moment in the future: She will have learned the news before this letter reaches her.

The Future Perfect is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb will/shall + auxiliary verb to have + Participle II

These are the adjuncts of the Future Perfect:  by that time, by then, by Sunday, by now, by the end of the year, by summer.

The last form of this group is the
Future Perfect Progressive. This form is used very rare but it still exists. The Future Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense expresses the actions that have started in the past, were continuing for some time and will be in a process until the certain moment of time in the future: They will have been working for this firm for twenty years next May.

The Future Perfect Continuous is formed in the following way:

The Subject + auxiliary verb will/shall + auxiliary verb to have + auxiliary verb to be in Past Participle + Participle I of the main verb

The Manifesto of a new education system: from the enlightenment to education. Problems of education are not associated with good or evil intentions of the reformers of the system, and underestimating the scale of changes required: the older system of successive local changes attempted to be brought into conformity with the new realities.

How to organize a binder for high school

In the result the old system was broken, but meet the new requests system is not built.

Feature of modern education is the change of subjectivity of the participants. New subjectivity dictates a lot of new individual requests, you need to understand and to formalize. Meet different requests requires coordination of the interests of all involved in the educational process subjects. The college binder organization of multiple queries requires a corresponding restructuring of the education system and, above all, structures, control system, remaining essentially unchanged. The experience of reforms has shown that even democratic law on education may not limit their usual authoritarian and Intrusive bureaucracy.

In this document we declare the General principles of restructuring. Details and detailed rules of engagement updated entities require separate consideration.

Best way to organize notes

Today there is no shortage of information and the teacher is not the only and the best source. Information available in any quantity, orientation and form of anyone. The student from passive object of education becomes an independent subject.

Under these conditions of enforced education in the external choice became very inefficient. More important is the ability to create conditions to motivate the student to learn.

The new subjectivity of the pupil requires an individual education program. At the same time, not everyone is ready to activate the self-selection that masks new subjectivity against the backdrop of massive loss of motivation to learn. Rate to support active students gradual promotion of new educational relations on the background of maintaining the traditional, but under the responsibility of the students themselves and their parents, and not the universal one for all program.

Organization tips for college students

In connection with the change in the relationship with the student and need of formation of individual educational trajectories, requires new competencies and even bundle the traditional single profession of a teacher for a few different types of activities.

Once the state was the customer education and determined the need for specialists. Gradually, as the saturation of the acute staffing needs and improve the level of education of society, the state cannot fulfill this function. Without explicit customer education is impossible to form reasonable criteria for assessing the quality of education.

Fashion for a variety of ratings and evaluations based on contrived options are useful only for the formal comparison between themselves and someone from the outside. It is necessary to institutionalize all possible types of customers in the education and give them the opportunity to form your order.

College organizing tips:

• the student (parent) on the basis of their educational needs, including on the basis of the evaluation of the labor market,
• the state, represented by specific departments and territories, given the different interests at different levels and local characteristics,
• business, given its differences in scale and dynamics of development,
• educational organization that has a stable demand or external relations.

The government, as a responsible Manager, which gives constitutional guarantees, may act as a regulator of supply and demand. It can further stimulate those educational organizations that provide the most in-demand educational demands.

Many peculiarities of the English verbs were developed during the Old English period and fixed in Middle English. The verbs were falling into two subclasses: finite and non-finite. The verb in its finite forms could possess the categories of person, number, tense, aspect voice and mood. The non-finite forms (Verbals) are the Infinitive, Participle I, Participle II and the Gerund. Verbals do not function as true verbs. [3] Verbals can function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

English verbs are also classified into notional and structural. Notional verbs are so-called main verbs; they possess a lexical meaning on their own. Structural verbs (modals, link verbs and auxiliary verbs) do not have an independent syntactic function or lexical meaning. They are always connected with other words. Usually grammarians also distinguish so-called semi-notional verbs. These verbs can be used either on their own or as auxiliaries (start, stop, must, may, can).

Verbs are the base of any English sentence, so they are used frequently in the discourse. Aida Saakyan, Modern English grammarian, claims that the most frequent notional verbs of the English language are “to say” (4500 uses per million words), ‘to get”(3400 uses) and “to go” (3300 uses). Though the structural verbs are used more often. The diagram of English notional verbs’ frequency by Saakyan is given in Appendix 1.

We can see from the history of English that verbs have fallen into two groups according to their conjugation – weak regular verbs and strong irregular verbs. In Modern English the regular verbs is the largest group. The Past Simple form and Past Participle of these verbs are formed with the help of suffix -ed that originated from the fusion of two Old English affixes: base-forming -i- (-e-) and past tense forming    -d- (-t-).

There are nearly 500 irregular verbs in Modern English including the archaic ones. Online-source UsingEnglish.com even claims that there are 620 irregular verbs in total. [4] But in fact we use actively no more than 200 of them. Irregular verbs compose the past form according to the traditional patterns.

Though irregular verbs are said not to obey the general rules, they can be subdivided according to the patterns of their modification. In the present work I tried to divide them by convention into 13 groups:

Group 1.
The verbs that belong to this group have one and the same form in the Infinitive, Past Simple and Participle two.  Here are some examples from this group:

burst	burst	burst
hit	hit	hit
put	put	put

More examples are available in Appendix 2.

We can see that some words of this group, like, for example, to burst, nowadays accept the regular conjunction also
[1]:

burst

bursted

bursted

Group 2.
The Past Tense and Past Participle forms of these verbs  are composed with the help of the flexion “-ought” (rarely – “-aught”).

buy	bought	bought
teach	taught	taught
think	thought	thought

The verb “to buy” also has an archaic form of Participle II – “boughten”.

Group 3.
The final consonant “-d” in the stem changes into “-t” in both forms.

bend	bent	bent
lend	lent	lent
spend	spent	spent

Here some of the verbs can also accept the affix “-ed” in Modern English.

bend

bended

bended

 

Group 4.
The root vowel “-i-“ changes into diphthong “-ou-”.

find	found	found
grind	ground	ground
wind	wound	wound

The words from this group have one more peculiarity – the letter “-i-“ is read here as [ai], though the syllable is closed. This helps, for example, to distinguish the verb “to wind” ([waind]) from the noun “wind” ([wind]).

The verb “to grind” accept the “-ed” inflection in Past Simple form.

grind

grinded

ground

Group 5.
The root vowel before “-ng” changes into “-u-“. Usually the root vowel is “-i-“.

cling	clung	clung
dig	dug	dug
sting	stung	stung

Some verbs of this group are also becoming regular.

dig

digged

digged

The verb “to sting” can accept two forms in Past Simple:

sting

stang

stung

Thus, it can be also classified to Group 10 (see below).

Group 6.
The long [i:] changes into the short [e]. Some verbs of these group also accept the consonant “-t” or “-d-“ at the end of the stem.

flee	fled	fled
keep	kept	kept
kneel	knelt	knelt

The verb “to kneel” can also be used as a regular verb.

kneel

kneeled

kneeled

Group 7. The verbs save their vowel but accept the consonant “-t” (rarely – “-d-“) at the end of the stem. In some cases we can notice the reduction of vowels.

burn	burnt	burnt
dwell	dwelt	dwelt
learn	learnt	learnt

Most of these verbs can also be used as regular ones. In Group 7 this variation is more frequent than in the other groups.

burn	burned	burned
dwell	dwelled	dwelled
learn	learned	learned

Group 8. The Past Simple and Participle II forms do not obey the principles of the Groups 1-7, but they still coincide.

lose	lost	lost
make	made	made
strike	struck	struck

The verb “to strike” can also have another form in Past Participle. So it can be also classified as the verb of the Group 12.

strike

struck

striken

Group 9. One of the forms coincides with the infinitive. It can be either Past Tense, or Past Participle.

come	came	come
run	ran	run
beat	beat	beaten

The verb “to beat” can also be treated as the verb of Group 1.

beat

beat

beat

Group 10. The root vowels change according to the pattern:

“-i- > -a- > -u-“. This group is the closest descendant of Germanic/Old English strong verbs (i-class).

begin	began	begun
drink	drank	drunk
spring	sprang	sprung

Group 11. In the Past Simple form the verb changes the root vowel. Participle II has “-n-“ at the end of the stem; it also usually changed the root vowel.

bear	bore	born
blow	blew	blown
draw	drew	drown

Group 12. The Past Simple form does not coincide with the infinitive and with the Participle II. Participle II has “-en-“ at the end of the stem; its root vowel coincides with the infinitive’s root vowel.

arise	arose	arisen
bite	bit	bitten
break	broke	broken

Group 13. The Past Simple and Participle II forms do not obey the principles of any patterns. Here suppletive verbs can be found.

be	was	been
do	did	done
go	went	gone
lie	lay	lain

We can come to the conclusion that the structure of verb conjugation in Modern English aims at simplification. The verbs from six groups of thirteen show their tendency to accept affixation instead of root vowels alternation.

The most common pattern is the one of Group 8. Out of 140 words analyzed 20 verbs (14,29%) belong with this group. The frequency of patterns used for creating the past forms of the irregular verbs is shown in Appendix 3.

Friendship definition

But love and fulfill their desires, a dream about that next to them there were always those who understand them, will support, protect, helping hand, listen and it will not require anything in return and it’s not about your parents or the loved ones and friends. But real friends are a gift. So what is true friendship and how not to get it wrong and friend was suddenly not the man.

Definition of a true friend

Friendship resembles love. It is so unpredictable, desirable and truly priceless, because as rare. Do meet real friends, no less difficult than someone who will make happy. After all friendships include not just communication, but also support in the most difficult situations, full acceptance of the friend as he is. Unlike romantic relationships, in friendships no one is trying to remake itself. People communicate, because together they are good.

They become friends only when both feel in each other’s company for comfort. And these relationships do not survive such periods of crazy passion, calm, love and disappointment. And don’t expect they are apart of something supernatural and they fight much less than lovers, between which burning feeling. People are friends with those who they like as a person, someone who causes no rejection, does not require too much and are not offended for any reason.

Friendship is a close relationship between people, not burdened by unfounded expectations and hopes. Her people do not dissolve and do not lose themselves, as it sometimes happens in love. On the contrary, the friendship helps them to feel more secure, more confident. Because the realization that you will come to the rescue, instills confidence in their abilities. No longer as scary as when he is alone. He has someone to lean on, someone to ask advice. He knows that a true friend will not give and will not put their goals above it.

As the great say “We don’t need much friends, but in the knowledge that they will come to our aid when we need it”.

What is the true meaning of friendship

When talking about friendship, of course, it is worth to mention its main component – trust. It determines whether people consider someone a friend or not. When they can’t trust someone, they’ll never call him a friend, do not let close. Even someone you were friends for many years, after the betrayal they removed from their lives. Because friendship is unconditional trust between people.

People get from those who I trust the most intimate understanding, which they so often lack. They know that friend will not judge, will understand, will calm, will listen, will not taunt, criticize, humiliate. He will always be on his side, even if all turn against him. When people are not confident that they will receive it from a person who wants to communicate with them more closely, they wouldn’t call him a friend. Without trust and confidence in the friendship cannot be and speeches.

Men to make friends much easier, they share a lot of interests, they don’t have so many responsibilities to maintain home comfort and upbringing of children. Women to tear myself an extra minute, just to talk to friends is not easy, especially if the husband is too jealous or tyrant. This is why male friendships are much more common than the female, and not because of female friendship does not happen.

The features and quality of friendship

Before you call someone a friend or yourself to become one, you need to understand what qualities are needed so that people were friends, what signs indicate that this person is indeed a true friend that you can always ask for help and can guarantee they will get that help.

Friendship does not happen without mutual interest, sympathy, desire to help, care for, Hobbies that you share.

It dies without communication, meetings, discussion of personal problems, willingness to spend your time on another person.

Writing about friendship

It’s mandatory characteristics are the understanding and desire to deal with what is bothering the person at any point in time, willingness to help, no matter how it was hard or inconvenient.

But without respect for the personal lives of other can not do, even if he or she is always ready to drop everything and come on the first call. Very soon this selfish attitude will cause them to open their eyes to what they are used for their own purposes, not allowing them to build their lives the way they want. True friendship rests on the fact that people care about one another as well as themselves, sometimes even more. But the one for whom they were ready to make a sacrifice, does everything that his friends do not suffer.

These qualities and characteristics of friendship illustrate that friends are not always close friends. Not everyone can call their friends, relatives, brothers or sisters, parents. To call someone his friend, he must be confident in himself. And not demand the impossible from him.

Can not be called a friendship communication with colleagues and acquaintances, even if it is pretty close, if the lack of genuine sympathy, concern, and desire to help. Even among those United by common interests, for example: members of some club or sports fans, often no friends, because between them there is no trust, loyalty or as another member of his group, but as a person. And tomorrow if their interests change, they’ll remain just friends, once addicted to something one.

The same can be said about business partners, members of business groups, executives in the same company. All these relationships are forced and based on personal interest of each. They have no trust, mutual support, if the situation does not affect their interests.

This mutual friendship has nothing to do with the benefit. If one is bad, and all the other helping hand, or offer it, let them know and did not ask. To each other never fail.

Examples of true friendship

There are situations when a friend gets in trouble, and then he was trying to help with the bitter truth, or refuse to help, but often the friendship ends, as one who was in a difficult situation, considers such behavior of the person that he trusted, betrayal. And the one who so wants to help, doesn’t understand why his friend is to trust him and take his hand, pulling him down with me.

Without trust, the friendship disappears as well, and without sympathy, desire to understand and feel the inner world of another. It kills and the inability to maintain relationships and communication due to moving to another city, country, appearance of new companies for communication, marriage, change of interests, which included, lack of free time.

But the friendship we need, so it’s important to cherish and appreciate. After all, it makes feel that we are precious and needed by someone.

Friends do not make many demands and often do not expect anything in response, knowing that you will get exactly the same support. Without them, it does not say and how not to convince, hard to live. You can, but still who would refuse those who are always ready to help? It is not surprising that friendship is what makes us happy and gives us hope when hard, and the despair threatens to absorb without residue.

This article will outline the use for this mark of punctuation: indicating possession or ownership.

The second use of an apostrophe is to denote ownership or possession. This one becomes a bit trickier, especially where plurals are involved.

After you read the article, you might also wish to watch a video in which Dr. Lines explains how to use apostrophes in this way.

The Apostrophe with Plurals

For example, in the sentence, ‘There is the dog’s bed’ an apostrophe has been used to show that the bed belongs to the dog. By using an apostrophe, it becomes clear that a single dog is the subject of this sentence. This is the case with proper nouns too: ‘Ben’s house’ and ‘London’s train network’ both require possessive apostrophes.

However, what should be done when there are multiple dogs who all have beds? If you want to indicate that there is more than one dog, the sentence would read, ‘There are the dogs’ beds’.

In words that end in ‘s’ in the plural, the apostrophe belongs after the ‘s’ to show there are multiple dogs. Others example of this rule include ‘I’m going to the girls’ treehouse’. Plurals that don’t end in ‘s’ don’t require this treatment, such as ‘The Board’s decision is final’ or ‘There is the gang’s hideout’.

The Apostrophe with Personal Names

According to the Snooks & Co. Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, (which is the style manual adopted by the Australian government and Australian universities), personal names that end in ‘s’ are treated differently to plurals ending in ‘s’. ‘John’s notepad’ shows correct apostrophe placement for a personal name not ending in ‘s’, while ‘Jess’s notepad’ shows the correct apostrophe placement for a name ending with ‘s’. Instead of just adding the possessive apostrophe, you should add an apostrophe and then an ‘s’.

Singular or Plural?

Where it becomes tricky is in the case of a word ending in ‘y’ and ‘ies’. Should it be ‘baby’s toy’ or ‘babies’ toy’? The former refers to one baby’s toy, whereas the latter refers to a toy for babies or a toy that many babies share.

An easy way to check your accuracy with this is to ask yourself if you are referring to one or too many? For example, when mentioning ‘the lady’s hat’, you are speaking of one woman with one hat. ‘The lady’s hats’ still refers to one lady, but this time she has many hats. ‘The ladies’ hat’ indicates that many ladies seem to share one hat and finally ‘the ladies’ hats’ signifies that many ladies have many hats.

In the world there is no country where women earn as much as men

Although in many countries over the past century, women gained many rights, gender inequality in the workplace. Essay covers a problem even in the most developed countries. On the planet there is no country where women and men in similar positions receive the same salary. “Women make up about half of the population of the Earth and deserve to receive the same access to health care, education, earnings, influence and political rights as men,” write the authors of the report of the world economic forum. Our argumentative essay on gender inequality is dedicated to clarify this topic for you.

The closest to gender equality are the Nordic countries

The first place among the countries that is most successful struggling with inequality, is Iceland. The top five includes and other developed countries of Northern Europe: Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. There is a gap between the different floors overcome 80% of it might have to do with developed innovative economy and a high standard of living in these countries.

Nicaragua and Rwanda are fighting inequality better than many developed countries

Sixth place in the ranking is unexpectedly of Nicaragua. A small and poor country in Central America ahead of the US, UK and other countries of the developed world, because there’s a lot of women who get higher education are engaged in professional work and participate in government. Immediately after Nicaragua is Rwanda she received a high rating, because in the local Parliament there are more women than men. There is a thesis statement on discrimination. You can easily find it by googling.

This is largely due to the indicators, reflecting the involvement of women in the political life of the country. According to analysts’ estimates, only 16 % of parliamentarians and 7% of government officials were women. In addition, the low place in the ranking was influenced by the income gap between men and women.

Chad, Pakistan and Yemen countries with the highest levels of discrimination

One of the last lines of the ranking is Chad, where few women have the opportunity to receive higher education and almost all managers, lawyers and officials are men. Pakistan fell to last place due to the large inequality between men and women in the economic sphere, while Yemen came in last place due to rupture in the amount of earnings and inequality in education and politics. Social inequality essays nicely tell us about more detailed.

The world situation has improved over the past nine years, and changes occur in the most unexpected regions

“World economic forum” has started to publish statistics in 2006 since then the authors of the report regularly interview CEOS of companies from around the world about the wage of their subordinates and to measure other indicators reflecting the situation of women in society. Changes occur very slowly over nine years, the overall situation of women on the planet has improved by only 4 %. However, studies show that most countries are moving in the right direction. The positive dynamics noticeable in 105 of the 142 countries included in the report. The situation is improved not only in developed countries. A lot of essays on gender inequality were written, and you might be interested to dive in them.

2.1 The history of the English verb.

During the Old English period, the system of the English verbs as well as the systems of all the rest Germanic languages possessed five main categories[2]:

1) the category of number. Here we can distinguish two types of number – singular (e.g. cat, school, way) and plural (cats, schools, ways).

2) the category of person. The structure of this category remained unchanged, though we can notice some development of the expression of the category. Since the ancient times there are three persons in the system of the verbs (first, second and third – in singular and plural forms).

3) the category of mood. Three moods were developed in Old English – indicative, imperative and conjunctive. The categories of tense and aspect are mostly used in indicative mood.

4) the category of tense. In Old English the tenses were divided into two large groups – past and present (non-past). The present tense could function as the future tense in special conditions (with the adverbs, which indicate the future). The separate form of the future tense and other complex forms expressing the time reference started to develop in the end of Old English period.

5) the category that stands apart from finite forms. There are three impersonal forms of the verb: infinitive, gerund and participle.  Infinitive is the basic form of the verbs that possesses no information about mood, number, tense or person of the verb but is able to show its lexical meaning. It can be used either with or without the particle ‘to’. Gerung is a non-finite verb form that is used to create a verb phrase. We can recognize it by the -ing inflection. Participle serves to modify a noun or noun phrase; it has the -ed inflection.

During the Old English period Germanic languages including English itself had one more peculiarity: they were divided into two groups according to the usage of different grammatical means that compose various forms of the past tense: so-called strong verbs, which possessed the alternation of the root vowel, and weak verbs that were modified with the help of affixation (-d or -t inflection). During the process of development of the system of verbs, weak verbs became regular, and strong verbs – irregular verbs. Regular/weak verbs are characterized by invariability of their root morphemes. Irregular/strong verbs form the past participle with the help of alteration of their roots.

Strong verbs are more ancient than weak ones. Their existence is considered to have begun in the era of Proto Indo-European language. The proof of this theory may be found in the similarity of Old English and Latin form, whose common ancestor was Proto Indo-European. For example:

Old English	Latin	Modern English
etan	edo	to eat
sittan	sedeo	to sit
beran	fero	to bear

Strong verbs were divided into seven main groups:

Group	Infinitive	Past tense		Participle II	Modern form
		Singular	Plural
I (i-class)	*i + i =  ī wrītan	*a + i = *ai > ā wrāt	0 + i = i writon	0 + i = i writen	to write
II (u-class)	*i + u = iu > ēo cēosan	*a + u = *au > ēa cēas	0 + u = u curon	0 + u = u > o coren	to choose
III	*e(i) + sonorant + consonant swimman	*a + sonorant + consonant swamm	u + sonorant + consonant swummon	u + sonorant + consonant swummen	to swim
IV	e + l (r) stelan	æ + l (r) stæl	āē + l (r) stāēlon	o+ l (r) stolen	to steal
V	e + noise consonant sprecan	æ + noise consonant spræc	āē + noise consonant sprāēcon	e + noise consonant sprecen	to speak
VI	a scacan	ō scōc	ō scōcon	a scacen	to shake
VII	alternation of long diphthongs blōwan	alternation of long diphthongs blēow	alternation of long diphthongs blēowon	alternation of long diphthongs blōwen	to blow

As we can see, in Proto Germanic and Old English the choice of vowels in the past forms of the verbs depended on the sounds that followed the root vowels. The group VII had different vowel alterations, but diphthongs stood in for all of them in the past simple tense and past participle form.

Weak verbs are typical only for Germanic languages – they didn’t exist in Proto Indo-European. The verbs that accept affixation originated from the strong verbs or ancient roots. The choice of inflections didn’t depend on root vowels, so the affixation simplified greatly the process of forming the past tenses. That is why the weak verbs became the main and basic type of verb morphogenesis in English nowadays. All the new verbs that appear in English accept the affixational type of conjugation.

 In Old English, the weak verb formed its past participle in the following way:

past tense affix -d- or -t-

root morpheme

base-forming affix -i-

personal inflection

 

According to the type of base-forming affix, the weak verbs could be classified into three groups. The first group had the base-forming affix -i- (after consonants) or -į- (after vowels). Later this affix acquired the form -e-. For instance, the verb dōmian
(to judge) acquired the past form dōmida (I judged), which later became the form dēm(e)de. Past participle form of this verb was dēm(e)d.

If the stem of the verb ended in voiced consonant, then it acquired the past tense affix -d-. If the stem of the verb ended in voiceless consonant, then it acquired the past tense affix -t-. For example, the verb cept (voiceless “p” + voiceless “t”), which meant “saved”, and the verb hāēld (voiced “l” + voiced “d”) that meant “healed”.

The second group of weak verbs possessed the base-forming affix -ōi-. During the process of development of English, this affix disported into two different affixes: -i- and -o-. The second affix was commonly used with the past forms of the verbs. For example, luf-o-d-e
(scheme root+ base-forming affix+past tense affix+personal inflection) meant “I loved”. We can notice that this Old English form is still recognizable and is close to the modern form. The main difference is the absence of personal inflection in nowadays English, except the inflection of third person in the Present Simple tense ( -s / -es ). This inflection was based on Old English personal inflection “-þ” (this sign is called “thorn”; later it was replaced by the combination of the letters “th”) that was pronounced as [Ө].

In all the Germanic languages there was a special group of verbs called Praeterio praesentia (lat. “Past of the present”). These verbs expressed the result of the previous action, which is recognized as the present. These were the verbs like to know, to need, to have, to present, to understand, to can, etc. There were only twelve verbs in Old English that fit this category. Most of them had no past participle form because they did not need to express it.

One more group of verbs was so-called suppletive verbs. These verbs could generate their different grammatical forms from different roots. In Old English there were two of these verbs: to be – bēon and to go – ʒān. We should notice that these verbs are still suppletive not only in Modern English, but in Modern Russian as well.

The forms of suppletive verbs in English are the following:

Tense		Person and number	Old English	Modern English
Present	Singular, I person		eom / bēo ʒā	am go
	Singular, II person		eart / bist ʒāēst	are go
	Singular, III person		is / biþ ʒāēþ	is goes
	Plural, I person		sint / sindon / bēoþ ʒāþ	are go
	Plural, II person
	Plural, III person
Past		Singular, I person	was ʒā	was went
		Singular, II person	wāēr ʒā	were went
		Singular, III person	wæs ʒā	was went
		Plural, I person	wāēron ʒān	were went
		Plural, II person
		Plural, III person

At the end of the Old English period, analytical forms of verbal tenses began to appear. It was also the beginning of individualization of the future tense forms. Some main verbs lost their lexical meaning and became the auxiliary verbs for creating different tenses. For instance, the verb willen (to want) became the expression of the future form (modern form – will).

The verb bēon was used in Old English to express the state in the present: ic eom cumen – “I am in the state of coming” (“I have come”). This structure became a source of the perfect forms. The verb habban – “to have” was the other source of the perfect forms.

At the same time, the passive forms were also developing in Old English. And again their base was the verb bēon – “to be”. During the Middle English period the passive constructions accepted their modern form.

Global warming is a trend increase in the average temperature on Earth over the past 100 years. It is calculated according to the data of meteorological stations around the world, in Europe, these stations have been around for about 150 years. But in General, around the world we have data for the last 100 years, and this calculation shows that the temperature increases, and increases the trend, then there is a significant trend and not just fluctuations around some long-run average values of temperature. And finally, we will answer a question: “what can each one of us do to avert global warming?”.

What is global warming in simple words

At the same time, it should be noted that this temperature is not rising smoothly and growing so-called “steps” and sometimes goes on a “plateau”. For example, in the last 30 years have seen a very noticeable increase in temperature, particularly strong rise occurred in 90 years, and since 2000 this process has slowed down. This happened before, that is to say that the temperature is rising “steps”.

Today the world is dominated by the theory that the main cause of global warming are greenhouse gas emissions. In this respect, in the scientific community there is an unprecedented consensus: 97% of publications on the topic of climate change has supported the theory that global warming due to emissions of greenhouse gases, primarily CO2, industry. In principle, CO2 emissions are small compared to emissions from natural sources. As the land and ocean are suppliers of carbon dioxide, but they eat it: in the ocean it makes plankton and land plants. If we sum these flows, the flows of greenhouse gases from fuel combustion are very small compared to natural fluxes, they represent about 4-5% of the natural flows.

Causes of global warming. Diagram

So the mystery is: why are these 4-5% of the “excess” CO2 can’t be absorbed by vegetation or the ocean? Moreover, in the experimental conditions observed the effect of fertilization by elevated carbon dioxide level: if the plant cover cap and start to pump back CO2, the plant will start to grow faster. Also the experiment was conducted on wheat field: the portion of the field supplied CO2 special hose, and place the wheat grows faster. But in vivo this effect of fertilization was not observed, instead there is an accumulation of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere, which for some reason is not absorbed by the vegetation.

Of these 33 degrees 30 degrees we can attributed to water vapor and only 3 degrees at the expense of all other greenhouse gases, among which are artificial substances, such as CFC contained in refrigeration. Why are talking about CO2? The fact that CO2 is a gas, which is directly associated with anthropogenic activities. There are, for example, methane, relevant to our country, in the permafrost zone may receive a large amount of methane, which can also contribute to global warming. But at present, CO2 is in the focus of attention of scientists.

Relevance of global warming

First and foremost, you need to calculate how much will eventually warm up the Earth. It should be understood that we all have adapted to existing climatic conditions. Of course, from year to year, they vary, but in General is very much tied to the existing system of atmospheric circulation. As an example: our country is characterised by large seasonal fluctuations in the winter accumulated snow, followed by spring flood, and then comes summer. But in recent years we see a trend that the snow cover does not accumulate, because too often in the winter comes the thaw, and no peaks of floods. But all our reservoirs are adapted under the conditions that existed earlier, in the spring they just not getting enough water, and for the second consecutive year in the Volga basin had enough water. But these things can be adapted.

On the other hand, there are calculations that the problem can be much more serious, because we live in a particular air circulation system for our latitude is, for example, westerly flow from the Atlantic, and in addition, there is the Siberian anticyclone. But if the warming of the Earth continues, subject to change and the air circulation system, and some signs of this are already visible.

In Europe, winters have become unpredictable: suddenly begins to blame the snow for several days, and airports simply can’t handle the snow. Primarily this is due to the weakening of the Western migration. It is necessary to consider many other factors, such as the melting of ice in the Arctic they are annual, not perennial, the result is a pole of heat, because the water is warmer than ice, and such things will immediately affect the air circulation there is a rapid change of weather. And this alteration of the system can be very dangerous and will require an overhaul of the entire industry and not only. In any case, we would expect greater challenges.

Remedies of global warming

There are two main methods of fight against global warming: drastic reduction of emissions and geoengineering methods. To date, it is unclear what is more real to do: reduce emissions or accelerate the development of bioengineering methods, although at the moment there is no one successful method of their application. In this way a drastic reduction in emissions has already proven unrealistic.

Signed in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol was based on different scenarios. But at the moment we have already exceeded the most pessimistic of the scenarios. Primarily, this is due to the accelerated development of third world countries and especially of China. If in 1990 years, the economic development of the PRC were in line with the scenario of the Kyoto Protocol, in 2000 years the pace of China’s economic development has increased dramatically. China needed additional energy resources that they were able to find only in a private corner.

Precautions of global warming

And coal is the major supplier of CO2 per unit of production, so we are unable to be kept within defined scenarios. Now, when the Kyoto Protocol was a fiasco, we were at a loss: it turned out that we can’t agree among themselves. At the moment is the Kyoto Protocol only exists in the Copenhagen accord, that is, voluntary commitments of the countries to control emissions, but this document is not even accepted at the official level, and, even if these commitments are adhered to, it still does not fundamentally change the situation.

The second way is bioengineering techniques. One of these methods is injection of CO2 into the mine. Such installations have already been established, but so far none of them worked. In 2009 was carried out another experiment an attempt was made to increase the bioproductivity of the ocean so that phytoplankton absorbed the “extra” carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Was found the area in the ocean with reduced productivity because of a shortage of dissolved iron, where an experiment was conducted. However, he failed: after it was added dissolved iron, began the rapid development of phytoplankton; according to scientists, plankton had to go to the bottom, but that didn’t happen, instead it went through the food chains and the effect was zero. There are also exotic methods, such as the increased reflectivity of the stratosphere with special aerosols.

Causes and consequences of global warming

Calculations of temperature increase maintained until the end of this century. Near the threshold is exceeded 450 ppm CO2 particles in the atmosphere. At the moment CO2 concentration is about 400 ppm of the particles (the first time this figure was recorded in February of 2015). At 450 million, we will have exceeded a threshold temperature of 2 degrees. It is believed that up to this point, we live in their world, then there will be a change in the circulation system. It is expected that this will happen in 2040, and by 2100 could occur in excess of 4 or 5 degrees, which would actually change the entire climate system of the Earth. During the ice age the average temperature was 11 degrees, today it is +15, that is, the difference is only 4 degrees. So, if we “warm up” at 4 degrees, this may mean a restructuring of the system of atmospheric circulation, the change of the whole biosphere of the Earth, which of course will lead to unpredictable political and economic changes around the world.

Academic writing demands a formal tone characterized by careful language choices to convey ideas to readers as precisely and unambiguously as possible. Colloquial language, defined as language that is “normally restricted to informal (especially spoken) English” (Burchfield, 2004), does not satisfy this need for exactness of expression.

Instead, as Pam Peters (2007) says of colloquialisms, they “undermine the serious effect you want to have on the reader. Your writing should not appear casual, imprecise or gloss over details.” Therefore, to create the best impression when writing academically, it is recommended to find formal equivalents for any colloquialisms you may otherwise be tempted to use.

What to Avoid

Some types of colloquial language are obviously inappropriate for use in academic writing, such as slang (e.g. “till” instead of “until”) or vulgar expressions. However, less obviously, you should also avoid the following.

Clichés

For example: “time will tell” and “as luck would have it”.

These expressions are commonly used in speech, but for formal writing, they lack both the specificity of meaning required to lend accuracy to your writing, and the originality to make your writing more interesting.

Idioms

For example: “a drop in the ocean” and “cut to the chase”.

These expressions are extremely common in speech, but they pose important problems in academic writing. First, as with clichés, these expressions lack specificity of meaning. Second, and even more problematically, because idioms cannot be understood literally, using them risks misinterpretation of your meaning by readers without the necessary language skills.

Fillers

For example, “very”, “so” and “even”.

It is common to use filler words to add emphasis and rhythm in speech. However, such words are unnecessary in academic writing and detract from its effectiveness.

Finding Formal Equivalents

Between using Google search and consulting a good dictionary, a suitable formal equivalent to any colloquial expression will always be to hand. For example, to find a formal equivalent of “to hand”, a simple search of Google search for “define to hand” produces the definition of “within easy reach”. Likewise, using the online Macquarie Dictionary (available through an annual paid subscription), a search for “hand” returns a result with a list of idioms that use the word hand. Number 95 in the list gives the definition of “to hand” as “within reach”.

Note that a Google search for a definition will return results from several online dictionaries, some of which are better than others. Try to use only respected online dictionaries, such as Merriam Webster, the Oxford Dictionary, the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the MacMillan Dictionary, the Collins Dictionary or the Cambridge Dictionary.